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Pneuma 31 (2009) 85-104
Toward an Indigenous Model of Native American
Ministry within the Assemblies of God*
Joseph J. Saggio
Northwest University Kirkland, Washington 98033 USA
joseph.saggio@northwestu.edu
Abstract
This article chronicles the historical missiological development of the Assemblies of God USA with regard to Native American ministry from its early roots characterized primarily by a missions-driven model toward the emergence of a more indigenous-driven model that first became evident in the late 1940s. Although the missions-driven model is far from being a fait accompli, the vision of far-sighted missionaries and indigenous leadership has brought enormous progress since the early twentieth century. This article examines the early development of indigenous ministry from 1950 to 1987 and then reviews developments from 1988 up to the present time. The fi nal section of the article focuses specifi cally on ongoing challenges to developing indigenous ministry among Native Americans.
Keywords
missiology, Pentecostalism, Native Americans, American Indians, First Nations, Assemblies of God U.S. Missions, indigenous ministry
People did come bringing a little black book and they were so careful to tell us what the little black book had, and that it said “T ou shalt not kill and thou shalt not steal.” Yet, this seemed to be the premier project [of] these people that gave us this book was to kill us and steal from us. [T ey] had no concern about us because they were more inter- ested in the wealth — in our oil, our silver, our gold, our timber, our
furs — but they [were] never part of us.
— Rev. Andrew C. Maracle, Sr. (Mohawk, Turtle Clan). Oral Interview
with Wayne Warner, March 17, 1992
* An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 35th Annual Society for Pentecostal Studies Annual Meeting, Fuller T eological Seminary, Pasadena, California, March 24, 2006.
© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2009 DOI: 10.1163/157007409X418167
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Introduction
Historically, the Assemblies of God (AG) has been in the forefront of global missionary eff orts since its inception in 1914. From the beginning, early Pentecostal leaders stressed the urgency of getting missionaries to the fi eld in order to fulfi ll the Great Commission (Matt 28:18-20) and to train indig- enous leaders. Today this translates into over 57 million AG adherents world- wide in 295,724 churches and preaching points.1 Included in this worldwide outreach are missionary and church-planting eff orts among American Indians and Alaska Natives2 throughout the United States, which brings the total number of Indian AG churches in the country to 190.3 In another view, the aggregate amount of AG adherents identifi ed by their congregations in 2006 as being Native American was listed as 40,290, representing 1.4 percent of the total 2,836,174 AG adherents.4 Using the AG as a point of reference, this article examines the historic development of indigenous ministry among Native Americans by adapting a previously developed chronological template; it briefl y discusses the challenges and opportunities in the further develop- ment of indigenous leadership5 and concludes with recommendations on fur- ther development of the model.
Early Pentecostal and Assemblies of God Eff orts: 1903-1949
Perhaps the earliest recorded account of an American Indian receiving the baptism in the Holy Spirit is an eyewitness account from (circa) 1903 recounted by Howard Goss, an early Pentecostal leader who recalled a pre-Azusa Street revival in Galena, Kansas in which many were baptized in the Holy Spirit:
1
Statistics for 2006 provided by Sherri Doty, Statistician for the General Council of the Assemblies of God. Telephone conversation on June 7, 2007.
2
In this article, the use of the terms Native Americans, American Indians, Alaska Natives, Native Indians, and First Nations are used interchangeably and should be seen as more or less synonymous, with the understanding that First Nations is often the term of choice used in Canada and parts of the northern United States.
3
See Race and Ethnicity of AG Churches in the Arizona District, 2006 Preliminary Report issued May 9, 2007.
4
Telephone conversation on June 7, 2007 with Sherri Doty, Statistician for the General Council of the Assemblies of God.
5
Jim Dempsey, “Part I: Assemblies of God Ministry to Native Americans,” Assemblies of God Heritage 22 (Summer 2002): 4-11. For the purposes of this paper, the term indigenous refers to the original (pre-Columbian) inhabitants of North America self-identifi ed as American Indians, Native Americans, Alaska Natives, Eskimos, or First Nations.
2
J. J. Saggio / Pneuma 31 (2009) 85-104
87
During the altar service one night I watched an old Indian chief receive the baptism of the Holy Spirit. Tall and straight as an arrow, this old chief stood tilted rigidly back- wards, yet maintained his upright position by balancing himself on the edge of his heels without any support. While he was praising God with uplifted hands, his body trembled rhythmically as if shaken by some great machine.6
Documentation of early First Nations Pentecostal outpouring also comes from Canada, including this account relayed by A. H. Argue in 1909, just prior to the formation of the AG:
Our Chief’s wife baptized, also our Brother Stevenson’s boy was baptized in our meet- ings. Glory to Jesus [sic]. Have meetings every night, and the people just rush in. Oh brother, it is a wonderful power in our meetings [sic]. At the same time we cast out devils in Jesus’ name, the sick, they come to my house, and we just pray for them and lay hands on them and the Lord heals them suddenly.7
Apparently the first published mention of AG work among Native Americans in the United States was a brief article in 1918 by Clyde T ompson of Califor- nia, who indicated that he had “reached quite a few and given out the Word of life to them.”8
Contemporaneous with T ompson’s seminal missionary activities, Charles and Florence Personneus began service as missionaries in Alaska in 1917.9 T us, Indian missions began within the AG, although it would not be until the 1940s that “organized” evangelistic and missionary work would be done under denom- inational auspices. In 1943, the Home Missions Department of the Assemblies of God organized the American Indian Division to coordinate missions and church-planting eff orts and to provide a mechanism of support and account- ability for these eff orts, which had already begun “in earnest” years earlier.
10
6
H. A. Goss and Ethel Goss, The Winds of God (New York: Comet Press, 1958), 11, 12 cited in Carl Brumback, Suddenly From Heaven (Springfi eld, MO: Gospel Publishing House, 1961), 28. We also know that Native Americans were part of the Azusa Street Mission under Pastor W. J. Seymour during the early part of the twentieth century. See Cecil M. Robeck, Jr., The Azusa Street Mission and Revival: The Birth of the Global Pentecostal Movement (Nashville: T omas Nelson Inc., 2006), 88.
7
Jeremiah Rundle, quoted by A.H. Argue from personal correspondence to him, “Pentecost Among the Indians of the North,” The Latter Reign Evangel 2 (April 1909): 17.
8
Clyde T ompson, “Amongst the Indians,” The Christian Evangel 248 and 249 (July 27, 1918): 5.
9
Dempsey, “Part I: Assemblies of God Ministry to Native Americans,” 6.
10
William W. Menzies, Anointed to Serve: The Story of the Assemblies of God (Springfi eld, MO: Gospel Publishing House, 1971), 235.
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Initially evangelism and church-planting work among Native people was perceived to be the prerogative of missionaries, and limited evidence of indig- enous leadership development exists before 1950.11 Yet, these early Pentecostal missionaries sacrifi ced enormously, calling upon others to become missionar- ies as well, because “the Indians need God the same as the heathen of foreign lands.”12 In the early 1930s, these workers needed $30 a month in support but some received only $10 and had to supplement their diet with “acorns, eels, berries, and roots.”13 Happily, the sacrifi ces of these early missionaries were not without gain:
The power of God so fell last Sunday night that there was no preaching at all [sic]. God used our little twelve year-old girl to speak to the heart of these people. As she was leading the testimonies the power of God fell on her and she wept and cried out to God for souls.14
By 1936 Ernest and Ethel Marshall established the first Indian AG church in Arizona on the San Carlos Apache reservation.15 T eir persistence “bore fruit” and “revival fi re broke out on the reservation.”
16
During that revival the Mar- shalls reported that their small frame church was unable to contain the swell- ing crowds of congregants.17
The Pentecostal Evangel begins mentioning indigenous Native ministry by the 1940s. Many of the earlier accounts spotlight the need for missionaries to reach Native Americans, making little or no mention of ministry by Indians.
18
11
In an apparently unprecedented move at the time, Native American evangelist Watt Walker, self-described “Red Cherokee Evangelist,” was appointed as a founding member of the (then) North Central District (AG) in 1922. Walker served on the District Credentials Committee but his ministry was not “exclusive to Indians.” See D.J. Rodgers, Northern Harvest: Pentecostalism in North Dakota (Bismarck: North Dakota District Council of the Assemblies of God, 2003), 38.
12
J. D. Wells, “Shall the American Indian Know God?” The Pentecostal Evangel 842 (April 5, 1930): 12.
13
J. D. Wells, “Among the American Indians,” The Pentecostal Evangel 907 (July 18, 1931): 11.
14
D. L. Brown, “Blessing for the Indians,” The Pentecostal Evangel 1185 (January 23, 1937): 12.
15
Dempsey, “Part I: Assemblies of God Ministry to Native Americans,” 8. See also Pauline Dunn, A Trail of Beauty: A Short History of American Indian Bible College , (Phoenix: American Indian Bible College, 1984), 2.
16
“Revival among the Apache Indians,” The Pentecostal Evangel 1474 (August 8, 1942): 7.
17
Ibid, 7.
18
See, for example: J.D. Wells, “Shall the American Indian Know God?” The Pentecostal Evangel 842 (April 5, 1930): 12 and J.D. Wells, “Among the American Indians.” The Pentecostal Evangel 907 (July 18, 1931): 7 as just two articles that make a strong case for “raising up” mis- sionaries to serve Native Americans without calling for indigenous workers at this point.
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The first known Indian to be ordained by the Assemblies of God was Rev. Andrew C. Maracle, Sr. (Mohawk), who graduated from Zion Bible Institute (now Zion Bible College) in Barrington, Rhode Island and was ordained in 1944.19
In February 1948, the first Indian Convention sponsored by the AG was held on the San Carlos Apache Reservation in Arizona, bringing together a large group of Indians, missionaries, and a host of others from as far away as Washington and Idaho. Although the convention was clearly “missionary- driven,” there is mention of indigenous ministry as well.20 Reference is made to Dick Boni as “our first Apache Indian preacher” and to Charles E. Lee, a young Navajo hoping to attend Bible school.21 Tese examples illustrated a growing awareness of the potential for indigenous leadership.
Initial Development of Indigenous Ministry: 1950-1987
In 1950, a pivotal article in The Pentecostal Evangel articulated a burgeoning paradigmatic shift from the “missionary-driven” model toward a more indig- enous approach:
For a long time we have waited for the day when God would lay His hand upon young Indian lives, and call them out to serve Him. Now the time for which we have waited and prayed has come, and several consecrated Indian young people have stepped out to dedicate their lives to Christ and His gospel.22
Rev. Charles E. Lee was a key Navajo leader. Born in Red Valley, Arizona in 1924,23 he came to Christ in the late 1940s. Lee determined to reach out to his own tribe, who were without any Pentecostal witness.24 Subsequently, Lee attended Central Bible Institute (now Central Bible College) in Springfi eld,
19
John E. Maracle, Native American Representative for the Assemblies of God, President of the Native American Fellowship of the Assemblies of God, and General Presbyter, interview by author, Phoenix, AZ, November 1, 2005.
20
“First Indian Convention,” 1948, 10-11, which describes “[h]ow the Apaches did drink in the Word of God as it was given by various visiting missionaries as well as by the Home Missions Director, Brother Vogler, and by our General Superintendent E.S. Williams” (11).
21
Ibid, 11. Indeed, Charles Lee did become one of the pioneer indigenous leaders among Native Christians throughout his lifetime and infl uenced Native ministry throughout the United States.
22
“Indians to Train for Service,” Pentecostal Evangel 1897 (September 16, 1950): 12.
23
Glenn Gohr, “Charlie Lee, Bringing the Gospel to the Navajos,” Assemblies of God Heritage 25 (Spring 2005): 8-13.
24
“First Indian Convention,” 1948, 11. At that time the Navajo numbered about 55,000.
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Missouri. T ere he became grounded in indigenous church-planting princi- ples25 through the personal infl uence of Melvin L. Hodges.
26
Lee served suc- cessfully as founding pastor of Mesa View Assembly of God in Shiprock, New Mexico for thirty-six years.27
Another Native pioneer, Rev. Andrew C. Maracle, Sr. (Mohawk, Turtle Clan), later pastored on the Six Nation Reserve in New York and Canada. Born in 1914, Maracle was fi ercely proud of his Mohawk heritage and fought to preserve it from his boyhood:
I fought with everything I had. And when I was beaten, brother, I was strapped just about every day that I went to school because we weren’t to think Indian, do Indian, talk Indian, or anything — we were punished.28
During the 1950s and 1960s several other Native American leaders rose up to assume ministry positions. T ey included Jimmy Dann (Shoshone), George Eff man (Klamath Indian), John McPherson (Cherokee), Alfred Elgin (Pomo), brothers Virgil and Leslie Sampson (Pima), brother and sister Rodger A. Cree and Hilda Cree (Mohawk), Marles Moore (Sioux), and Arthur Stoneking (Winnebago), to name just a few!29 Tese individuals are merely representative of a much larger group of Native leaders.
It was also during this time period that a number of supportive non-Native leaders began exerting infl uence as well. One such pioneer was Alta M. Washbu rn,
25
“Charlie Lee’s Testimony,” Pentecostal Evangel 1997 (17 August 1952): 10-11. See also Gary B. McGee, People of the Spirit: The Assemblies of God (Springfi eld, MO: Gospel Publishing House, 2004), 387-90, and Joseph J. Saggio, “Assemblies of God Higher Educational Institu- tions: A Means to Develop the Indigenous Church Model Among Native Americans,” Encounter: Journal for Pentecostal Ministry 1 (Fall 2004) [E-Journal]. Available at http://encounterjournal. com/articles/2004_fall/saggio.htm.
26
Betty J. Hanna, faculty member at American Indian College, interview by author, Phoenix, Arizona, October 7, 2005; See especially Melvin Hodges, The Indigenous Church (Springfi eld, MO: Gospel Publishing House, 1953).
27
David Mainse, “The Charles Lee Story: Turning Point with David Mainse” (Springfi eld, MO: The General Council of the Assemblies of God, 1976), 11. Used with permission from the Flower Pentecostal Heritage Center, Springfi eld, MO 65802. Reference No. 10219274.
28
Oral History: An Interview with Andrew C. Maracle, Sr., Wayne Warner, Interviewer (Tape 1). (March 17, 1992.) Used with permission from the Flower Pentecostal Heritage Center, Springfi eld, MO 65802. Reference No. 10001424.
29
See, for example, Jimmie Dann, “I Received No Peace,” The Pentecostal Evangel 2097 (July 18, 1954): 10-11. See also Ruth Lyon, “Evangelizing the American Indian Part I,” The Pentecostal Evangel 2475 (October 15, 1961): 22-23, and Ruth Lyon, “Evangelizing the Ameri- can Indian Part II,” The Pentecostal Evangel 2476 (October 22, 1961): 18-19. Numerous other indigenous leaders were called into ministry at this time as well.
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founder of All Tribes Indian Bible School (today known as American Indian College) in Phoenix, Arizona.30 T us a new chapter in the development of indigenous ministry was birthed. Today American Indian College in Phoenix, Arizona is a regionally accredited Bible college operating under the auspices of the AG Division of U.S. Missions.
Subsequent attempts to create institutions to develop indigenous ministry included the establishment, by Pauline Mastries, Charles Hadden, and Hubert Boese, of Eastern Bible Institute (later renamed Native American Bible College and now located in Shannon, North Carolina) in Fayetteville, North Carolina in 1968.31 During this time frame, 88 percent of the Lumbee churches in North Carolina became indigenous.32 Leo and Mildred Bankson founded Good Shepherd Indian Bible Institute in Mobridge, South Dakota in 1970 (later Black Hills Indian Bible College after moving to Rapid City, South Dakota). Also, Bethel Bible Training Center (now Far North Bible College) in Anchorage, Alaska was established through the eff orts of Arvin and Luana Glandon along with Kenneth Andrus in 1973.
In 1977, the General Council passed a resolution allowing for the appoint- ment of a Native American representative to the Assemblies of God. Accord- ingly, John McPherson, a successful Cherokee evangelist, was appointed as the first Native American representative in 1978.
33
In 1984, the first Convocation of Christian Indian Leaders was held in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Today the Convocation of Christian Indian Leaders is an annual indigenous event spon- sored by the Native American Fellowship of the Assemblies of God. From 1977 to 1982, Rodger A. Cree (Mohawk) became the first Native president of Eastern Indian Bible Institute (now Native American Bible College). In Phoenix, Arizona, American Indian Bible Institute (now American Indian College)
30
Alta M. Washburn, Trail to the Tribes (Prescott, AZ: 1990), 48. See also Joseph J. Saggio,
“Alta M. Washburn: ‘Trailblazer to the Tribes,’ ” Assemblies of God Heritage 27 (January 2007):
28-33. For a complete history of the first fi fty years of American Indian College see Joseph
J. Saggio and Jim Dempsey, eds., American Indian College: A Witness to the Tribes (Springfi eld,
MO: Gospel Publishing House, 2008).
31
Dempsey, “Part I: Assemblies of God Ministry to Native Americans,” 6. See also “Eastern
Indian Bible Institute Extends Ministry to More Native Americans,” The Pentecostal Evangel
4005 (February 10, 1991): 29.
32
Jim Dempsey, “Concluding Part: Assemblies of God Ministry to Native Americans,” Assem-
blies of God Heritage 22 (Fall 2002), 19.
33
Minutes. Revised Constitution and Bylaws, The General Council of the Assemblies of God. The
T irty-Seventh General Council, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, August 18-23, 1977, 66; See also
Oral Interview with John E. Maracle.
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J. J. Saggio / Pneuma 31 (2009) 85-104
also had its first Native president when Simon Peter (Choctaw) served briefl y as president from 1978 to 1979 before his untimely death from cancer.34
Overall, Dempsey regards the 1970s and 1980s as a time when Native lead- ership began to “visibly take hold in the churches.”35 During this time, for example, indigenous work was growing in the Arizona District as well with twenty-three of the forty-seven Indian churches (49 percent) reporting having Native pastors.36 Indigenous ministry among Native Americans was, however, still a far cry from being a fait accompli.
From 1988 to the Present
Beginning in the late 1980s, many of the advances and challenges that began in the years since Native ministry first began in the AG have continued along with steadily increasing growth among Indian churches. For example, in 1955 there were thirty-six Native churches in the AG,37 but by 2006 that number had risen to 190.38 T ere has also been growth, over time, in the percentage of Native churches pastored by Native leaders. For example, from 1989 to 2004 there was a 27 percent increase in the number of Native pastors (versus non- Native pastors) pastoring Indian AG churches in the New Mexico and Arizona Districts combined.39
Today, groups like the Native American Fellowship (NAF) operate com- pletely under indigenous leadership. NAF continues to promote indigenous ministry through various forms of leadership development. T ey have a well- designed web site and quality promotional materials, and host an annual con- vocation that draws participants from all over North America.
In 1988, the American Indian College (then American Indian Bible Col- lege) in Phoenix, Arizona became the only Pentecostal Bible college for Native
34
Dunn, A Trail of Beauty, 25-29; See also William E. Peter, “Simon Peter was a Native
American,” The Pentecostal Evangel 3980 (August 19, 1990): 17.
35
Dempsey, “Concluding Part: Assemblies of God Ministry to Native Americans,” 19.
36
Ibid.
37
John E. Maracle, raw unpublished data, 2005. Used with permission.
38
Telephone conversation on June 7, 2007 with Sherri Doty, Statistician for the General Council of the Assemblies of God.
39
Saggio, “Assemblies of God Higher Educational Institutions,” 7. I have been unable to locate any national fi gures of the numbers of Native AG churches pastored by Native Americans. T erefore I off er this extrapolation of regional fi gures as a “snapshot” of what is taking place
within the AG among Native churches since these fi fty-six churches in Arizona and New Mexico
comprise 29.4 percent of the 190 Native churches in the AG.
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J. J. Saggio / Pneuma 31 (2009) 85-104
93
Americans in the United States to gain regional accreditation — a milestone indeed. From 1998 to 2004, alumnus Jim H. Lopez (Cocopah/Hispanic) served as president. Finally, the 1997 General Council placed three Native AG ministers on the General Presbytery to represent the needs of the Native constituency: John E. Maracle (Mohawk), Rodger A. Cree (Mohawk), and C. Blair Schlepp (Lakota).40 This was a historic first as well, elevating Native Christian concerns and giving them a vote at the denominational level.
Challenges to Developing Indigenous Ministry
Although there has been some remarkable progress since 1914, the AG con- tinues to grapple with a large number of issues in order for Native American ministry to become more fully indigenous. First, there is still a lack of trained and equipped Native leadership to carry out the task. As Andrew Maracle (Mohawk) relates, “You’ve got to get Indians in there. This is what I’m saying, with the Assemblies here we need to have Natives now standing at the front and guiding the work in there.”41
In the north central region of the United States the shortage of indigenous leadership is extremely pronounced. AG U.S. Missionary John Davis reports that over 60 percent of the Native AG churches in the north central region require outside fi nancial assistance and executive oversight. Tese churches do not have an adequate base of indigenous pastors and other lay leaders. In fact, Davis reports that only 4.3 percent of the Native AG churches in that region are “General Council Afiliated,” meaning that they are fully self-supported and self-governed. This stands in stark comparison to 41 percent of the overall churches in that same region that are General Council afiliated.
42
Secondly, not only is there a lack of Native leadership, but also where there is leadership these Native pastors often labor without adequate compensation.
40
Although John McPherson (Cherokee) had served earlier as the National Indian Represen- tative, this position did not have “voting status” and lacked the empowerment of a position on the General Presbytery.
41
Oral History: An Interview with Andrew C. Maracle, Sr., Wayne Warner, Interviewer (Tape 2). Used with permission from the Flower Pentecostal Heritage Center, Springfi eld, MO 65802. Reference No. 10001425.
42
The AG North Central Region includes North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Minne- sota, and Wisconsin. See John R. Davis, A Course on Indigenous Church Principles for Native American Leaders in the North Central Region of the United States, unpublished D.Min. project, Assemblies of God T eological Seminary, 2005, 12-13.
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In 1988, Rodger A. Cree (Mohawk), Chairman of the Elders Council of the Native American Fellowship, reported:
Many Indian pastors do not have adequate support to provide the basic necessities of life for their families. T ey do not have modern necessities such as running water, adequate living quarters, vehicles for transportation, or equipment that would be ben- efi cial in carrying out their work.
43
T irdly, Native pastors should be empowered in their decision making, allowing them to develop culturally relevant congregations and future indigenous leader- ship that will continue to meet the unique needs of their communities. Accord- ing to Dennis Hodges (Lumbee), part of the success of indigenous ministry among the Lumbee Indians has been that they have created a climate of suc- cess in order to manage their own aff airs: “I think basically it was the leader- ship and self-determination because we’ve always been a people [who] never received any help.”44 Indigenous leadership needs to be encouraged because of their heightened awareness to specifi c tribal cultural issues, such as whether or not to incorporate traditional musical instruments, or on decisions about including the use of tribal language into the service. Dennis Hodges (Lumbee) favors this approach, and with respect to incorporating tribal languages points out, “You feel like a people when you speak your own language, you feel more connected to your past.”45
On a positive note, Pastor Lloyd Lee (Navajo), who serves a growing Choc- taw congregation in Wright City, Oklahoma, has the church’s name promi- nently displayed in Choctaw as well as English. Worship services feature songs in both languages.46 Lee’s church remains just one of many viable examples of how an indigenous church can successfully navigate cultural concerns in order to serve its constituency.
43
Rodger A. Cree, Untitled Paper, 1988, 1. Used with permission.
44
Dennis Hodges, Interview by author, Oral Interview: November 3, 2005.
45
Ibid. This has been a historic “fl ashpoint” since colonial times, when young Indian students at Harvard were required to learn English, Greek, and Latin at the expense of their own native languages in order to “gain” a “classical education.” T ere is a signifi cant literature base generated by American Indian Studies scholars regarding the demise of indigenous languages and culture among Native Americans. See, for example, K. Tsianina Lomawaima, “The Unnatural History of American Indian Education,” Next Step: Research and Practice to Advance Indian Education , Karen Gayton Swisher and John W. Tippeconic III, eds. (ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Educa- tion and Small Schools: Charleston, WV, 1999): 3-31.
46
Ken Horn, “Blessed by God,” Today’s Pentecostal Evangel 4740 (March 13, 2005): 40-43. Although Pastor Lee is Navajo, his wife is Choctaw, which provides an important cultural bridge for his leadership.
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Toward a More Indigenous Model
In spite of the tremendous strides made by Pentecostal Native Americans over the past ninety years, Native American Pentecostal indigenous ministry within the AG is still far from a fait accompli. Because the transition to indigenous leadership is a “work in progress,” many challenges still remain. T is third section of the article will recommend some strategies to ameliorate those concerns.
Prioritizing Indigenous Leadership among Native Americans
First and foremost, the AG must continue to make the model of indigenous ministry a paramount priority for Native Americans. This can only happen as more indigenous leadership is consistently cultivated. Melvin L. Hodges notes that the early New Testament church became quickly self-governing, moving quickly from a “missionary-driven” model to an “indigenous-driven” model:
After his three weeks’ stay in T essalonica, Paul wrote two epistles to the church that he had established there, epistles in which he had exhorted the converts to obey those that had the rule over them. In the short time of three weeks he had been able to establish a church its own government. T ey could carry on without him.
47
Hodges believes that indigenous workers should rise to the task of facilitating the spiritual maturation of their fl ocks.
48
He echoes the sentiments of many leading Native leaders, calling for the empowerment of indigenous pastors to assume the responsibility of evangelism, church planting, leadership develop- ment, and pastoral oversight. The 27 percent increase in the aggregate number of Native pastors serving Indian churches in the combined Arizona and New Mexico districts of the AG from 1989 to 200449 provides tangible evidence of an increasing adoption of the indigenous leadership model.
For those Native leaders who are serving in pastoral leadership, an aggregate view of the Arizona and New Mexico Native pastors who served between 1989 and 2004 reveals that many of them have received their ministerial formation from Bible College training — more specifi cally from the American Indian College (AIC) in Phoenix, Arizona. In fact, as institutional research indicates, eighteen out the twenty-six Native pastors (69 percent) are Bible college alumni,
47
Hodges, The Indigenous Church , 12.
48
Melvin Hodges, Growing Young Churches (Chicago: Moody Press, 1970), 124-26. 49
See this writer’s comments cited earlier in this article.
11
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J. J. Saggio / Pneuma 31 (2009) 85-104
and all of them except for one are alumni of AIC.50 Also, between 1989 and 2004 there was a 39 percent increase in Native Bible college alumni serving as pastors. Clearly, Bible colleges are a viable means of providing indigenous ministerial development.
John E. Maracle (Mohawk) agrees that theological formation is important for developing indigenous leaders, but he also believes that Native Americans need to further their overall educational attainment to remedy sociological, economic, and spiritual needs.51 American Indians and Alaska Natives must also develop strategies including “indigenous-driven” approaches that foster lay leadership development within tribal communities, small group Bible studies, extension training for indigenous leaders, as well as programs that inculcate strong Christian values and a sense of spiritual responsibility among youth and children.
Daniel Peiff er, who has worked among the Hopi, Tewa, and Navajo Indians for more than a decade, freely acknowledges that many will benefi t from higher education, but he recognizes that a large number of potential leaders are unable to attend institutions of higher learning and will have to rely on local, indigenous approaches to ministry formation.52
Peiff er has developed a mentoring model he calls “apostolic fathering,” in which lay leadership is guided by apostolic leaders who are sensitive to indig- enous leadership development.53 He implemented this program in a Hopi church in Polacca, Arizona and mentored fi ve people in a foundational eight- week intensive discipleship training.54 A year later, Peiff er reported that four of the original fi ve leaders are continuing leadership training, including two that are working toward ministerial credentials.
Peiff er has also restructured the training period into a six-to-eight-month program and has enlisted new recruits under this expanded time model, using some of the earlier trainees to assist with discipleship. He credits this approach
50
For a much fuller discussion, see Saggio, “Assemblies of God Higher Educational Institu- tions,” which off ers previously cited unpublished data provided by David J. Moore and Donald Keeter as well as statistical data documenting a fi fteen-year trend.
51
Unpublished written comments entitled “Forgotten Americans” sent to author, John E. Maracle, ©2004.
52
Daniel Peiff er, Apostolic Field Methods of Indigenous Leadership Training and Empowerment among the Hopi and Navajo People, unpublished D.Min. dissertation, Regent University, 2005.
53
Ibid., 86.
54
Ibid., 198-99.
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97
with the fact that the congregation has grown 20 percent in attendance, and nearly two thirds now tithe their income.55
Likewise, Rodger Cree (Mohawk), who has mentored a number of indige- nous leaders who now serve as pastors in Arizona, New Mexico, and North Dakota, feels that an extended length of training time is necessary to develop ministers successfully. Cree believes that two years of post-Bible college appren- ticing under an experienced minister is the minimum time needed to develop a foundational knowledge of pastoral ministry.56
Developing a Financial Infrastructure to Support Indigenous Leadership
Closely related to the requisite development of Native American Pentecostal leadership is the second concern: that of providing ministerial opportunities that are more fi nancially lucrative for Native pastors. Cree recognizes the dif- fi culty encountered by Native pastors who follow an Anglo missionary, because the missionary has an external support base that “evaporates” once the Indian pastor assumes control:
The missionary takes all the resources with him/her upon his/her departure. Usually this includes a mobile home, which was the living quarters, a “Speed-the-Light” van [supplied by the AG], and all fi nancial support except the local contributions. T us, the Indian pastor is left with very little material resources to begin his ministry.57
Cree, who was mentored by Mohawk ministers Andrew C. Maracle and Benny Brant, found it necessary to hold outside employment to supplement his pas- toral remuneration early in his ministry, remarking: “I taught on the impor- tance of fi nancial stewardship and found that often people were not aware that this was expected of them.”58
Although the visible problem facing many Native churches is the low fi nan- cial remuneration, the core issue appears to be that many congregations lack awareness of their fi scal responsibilities. Echoing the self-reliant philosophy of his mentor, Andrew Maracle (Mohawk), Cree adamantly maintains, “I believe
55
Daniel Peiff er, email comments sent to author on November 6, 2006.
56
Rodger A. Cree, phone interview with author on December 13, 2006. This author can attest that Rev. Cree has successfully mentored several people into ministry over the years using this approach.
57
Cree, Untitled Paper, 1988, 2.
58
Cree, phone interview.
13
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J. J. Saggio / Pneuma 31 (2009) 85-104
that it is important for people to assume ownership of their church and not to depend on outside support.”59
But what if the congregants are in great poverty and a large fi nancial gap still exists between church income and fi nances available to pay a pastor? For example, between 1994 and 2003 the unemployment rate among Ameri- can Indians and Alaska Natives increased from 11.7 percent to 15.1 percent, a rate more than twice that of the general population.60 Consider also that in 2003 the median income for American Indian/Alaska Native households was $34,700 compared to $48,000 for white (non-Hispanic) households, a discrepancy of $13,300 or 27.7 percent.61
As one example, the Arizona District of the AG has begun assisting some of their Indian churches in remote communities by building parsonages (at little or no cost to the church), thus providing a portion of the pastor’s remu- neration. Also, since many Native American communities are in great need of schoolteachers, more pastors should consider becoming bi-vocational and serving in schools as well. This will help to provide a more adequate livelihood. Moreover, the pastor’s spouse might fi nd employment as a teacher, thereby freeing the pastor to fulfi ll full-time ministry at the church.
Tribal colleges and universities, which are indigenous higher educational institutions serving their respective Native communities, have long recognized the need to develop more indigenous teachers because of the serious shortage of Indian educators.62 American Indian College in Phoenix, Arizona has stayed abreast of that concern as well. Although AIC is an AG Bible college, it also has programs in Elementary Education and Business to prepare lay leadership to undergird the fi nancial base of Native churches. Statistics for 2006 show that 85 percent of those who have graduated from AIC with degrees in Elemen- tary Education since 1995 are employed in the K-12 sector of education.63 Indeed, Native pastors (or their spouses) who serve as schoolteachers could
59
Ibid.
60
National Center for Educational Statistics. Status and Trends in the Education of the American Indians and Alaska Natives. Available at: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2005/2005108.pdf Retrieved on November 26, 2008., 122.
61
Ibid., 124.
62
A. F. Cunningham and K.E. Redd, Creating Role Models for Change: A Survey of Tribal College Graduates (May 2000). Prepared by American Indian Higher Education Consortium, The Institute for Higher Education Policy, and Sallie Mae Institute. ERIC Document Reproduc- tion Service No. ED 456 947.
63
Data supplied by the Division of Institutional Assessment at American Indian College in Phoenix, Arizona.
14
J. J. Saggio / Pneuma 31 (2009) 85-104
99
serve the dual purpose of providing both indigenous spiritual leadership for their congregations and urgently needed Native professional role models.64 Pastors who neither desire nor have the training to be school teachers may fi nd other means of employment to supplement their income until the con- gregation is in a position to support a minister fi nancially. T us “tent-making” may serve as a short-term option until the congregation is ready to assume the responsibility of pastoral support. From the outset, indigenous leaders will need to exercise patience as they strive to develop self-supporting congrega- tions, but if they are patient the process will serve both the pastor and congre- gation well. For example, the very first indigenous Native church in the AG was Mesa View AG in Shiprock, New Mexico, established in 1953 by Charles Lee and becoming fully self-supporting in 1976.65 Although the process took more than twenty years, more than thirty years later the church remains a sovereign, self-supporting congregation.
Finally, John E. Maracle recognizes that there is a deeper purpose behind stewardship than mere fi nancial independence. Maracle argues that strong teaching on stewardship is essential to building stronger Native congregations who employ stewardship in every aspect of their life and not just fi nancially:
. . . we have a vacuum and instability because stewardship was not taught. So, that’s why one of the focuses I have is on stewardship — and stewardship is more than tith- ing. Stewardship involves every area of your life.66
Empowering Indigenous Leadership
T irdly, once the indigenous leaders are in place they must be empowered by being allowed to further develop churches that refl ect their tribal culture and needs. Paul and Barnabas propagated the indigenous principle (see Acts 14:23) whereby local leadership was mentored under apostolic guidance. T ese apos- tles clearly understood that local leadership could best accomplish the task of evangelism and discipleship in one’s respective region. Sadly, over the past 200-plus years Christian missionary organizations have too often suppressed
64
See John W. Tippeconic III, “Tribal Control of American Indian Education: Observations since the 1960s with Implications for the Future,” in Next Steps: Research and Practice to Advance Indian Education, Karen Gayton Swisher and John Tippeconic III, eds. (ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools: Charleston, WV, 1999), 45-46.
65
“Navajo Indian Church Becomes Indigenous,” The Pentecostal Evangel 3357 (September 10, 1978), 8. Mesa View AG in Shiprock, New Mexico was the first Native church in the AG to receive General Council status as a fully-functioning, self-supporting assembly.
66
John E. Maracle, Interview by author, August 30, 2005.
15
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J. J. Saggio / Pneuma 31 (2009) 85-104
Indian culture and leadership, tacitly suggesting that Native culture was somehow “inferior” to that of the dominant society.67 Even some Native congregations have dificulty accepting Native leadership, preferring to have a “self-supporting” Anglo missionary handle all responsibilities. Still, missionaries can still have an important role in preparing their congregation for an eventual transfer to the indigenous model by easing the transition and providing in-depth teach- ing and leadership development that instills the indigenous principle until it becomes internalized.
Another reason for which empowering ethnic pastors is important is that using the local Native language and cultural emblems in church services can still be controversial. Several years ago an AG missionary pastor related to me the story of how a visiting Anglo minister to his Hopi congregation was appalled when the people prayed in their Native tongue, calling it a “heathen language.” Another Native pastor recounted how he was told that he would “fall into sin” if he continued to speak his own Native language.68 Yet, even many seasoned missionaries recognize how important it is for people to main- tain their own language. One veteran missionary commented that when she and her husband were pastoring, they saw older congregants blessed to be singing in their own Native tongue — a practice that was often forbidden by other missionaries.69
Individual congregations led by indigenous leaders who are intimately acquainted with their tribal language and culture can best decide how to address this issue. Many Native leaders have been successful at being able to preserve their language and culture while yet embracing Pentecostalism. Mohawk Pentecostal Andrew C. Maracle recognized the importance of main- taining his Native language and culture, proudly declaring, “I maintain my language — I maintain my culture today, and I’m proud of the fact that I have.”70 Moreover, many Native churches have already successfully incorpo- rated the use of indigenous languages into their services. In addition to bilin- gual church services (in both Mohawk and English), John E. Maracle hosted an evangelistic radio program for over ten years on the tribe’s radio station.71
67
John E. Maracle, “The Lost Nations,” Christianity Today 33 (March 3, 1989), 36.
68
Dennis Hodges, Interview by author.
69
Betty J. Hanna, Interview by author.
70
Oral History: An Interview with Andrew C. Maracle, Wayne Warner, Interviewer (Tape 3), March 18, 1992. Used with permission from the Flower Pentecostal Heritage Center, Spring- fi eld, MO 65802. Reference No. 10001426.
71
John E. Maracle, email communication to author, May 18, 2006.
16
J. J. Saggio / Pneuma 31 (2009) 85-104
101
As indigenous leaders become free to exercise complete spiritual oversight, they can deal more freely with self-governance and their respective cultural issues. Local pastors can also resolve cultural concerns such as whether or not to use traditional tribal instruments in their worship services. For example, the use of drums and certain other Native musical instruments by Christian believers is problematic in certain congregational settings because of the per- ception of syncretism; thus this calls for wise discernment. Astute pastors will be sensitive to these issues and can also call upon other experienced Native leaders for counsel if necessary.72
Undoubtedly, one of the greatest reasons for preparing indigenous leader- ship is that in order for the process to become fully functional, indigenous leadership needs to equip the next generation of indigenous leaders. As Dempsey astutely notes:
Just as missionary leadership must empower indigenous leadership, so also that first generation of Native leadership must be ready to empower its next generation. For indigenous leadership to be fully developed, a “fourth self” must be added to the “three self” model. T at “fourth self” is “self-training.” Indigenous leadership training for the next generation is the fi nal stage of indigenous leadership.
73
Early Pentecostal Native leaders such as Charles E. Lee (Navajo) and Andrew C. Maracle (Mohawk) lacked Native Pentecostal role models to mentor them and were forced to become “trail blazers” themselves. Perhaps because of that, they invested much of their time and energies into developing young Native ministers. After serving for thirty-six years as the founding pastor of Mesa View AG in Shiprock, New Mexico, Pastor Lee’s son Eric assumed responsi- bilities as the senior pastor, and has served continuously in that role since 1989.
Rodger A. Cree (Mohawk), himself discipled by Native leaders, is cognizant of the importance of mentoring the next generation, wisely recognizing, “Native pastors are uniquely qualifi ed to mentor other Native leaders because in many cases, they understand the language and cultural diff erences that dif- fer from the dominant society.”74 He points out further, “It’s good for Native
72
The author has been at national and regional events hosted by Native indigenous leaders when experienced elders who were able to address these concerns through dialogue discussed the issues at length. Several years ago, as a result of lengthy discussion and study, the Native Ameri- can Fellowship of the Assemblies of God (NAF) created a position paper addressing controversial practices and advised individual congregations on how best to avoid them.
73
Jim Dempsey, email communication to author, December 5, 2006. The other three “selfs” were previously identifi ed as self-governing, self-supporting, and self-propagating.
74
Cree, phone interview.
17
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leaders to have role models who can “fl esh out” Native ministry in a culturally relevant fashion — people they can relate to socially, culturally, and even lin- guistically.”75
Conclusion
Well-equipped Native pastors are clearly needed to lead their congregations into a healthy, biblical integration of tribal culture and Pentecostal Christianity — no small feat indeed! Compounded by the daunting twin social issues of poverty and high unemployment, Native leaders have enormous challenges and oppor- tunities ahead.
Moreover, mature Native leadership coupled with non-Native leadership should partner together to expedite the ongoing process of American Indian leadership development toward a completely “indigenous-driven” model. The AG has a tremendous heritage of developing indigenous church leadership worldwide, especially overseas. Native leaders can look to “overseas” models as examples, as well as to indigenous ministry in the United States among His- panics, Koreans, African-Americans, and Filipinos, for additional insights. Today, AG Native leaders remain cautiously optimistic about the progress of Native ministry, in part because so many missionaries are aging and retiring from the fi eld, with fewer replacements coming into the missionary ranks. T ankfully, a growing number of needed leaders are emerging to assume responsibility. Although many challenges still remain, the weight of historical evidence and the determination of Pentecostal Native leadership demonstrates that Native ministry within the AG is determined to continue pressing toward a more indigenous model of ministry.
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